This is my wiki site about London which will also link to the current pub history site
THE DEFENSIVE WALL OF LONDINIUM - described in 1926 by
Gordon
Home
Right up to the eighteenth century the ancient nucleus of the city of London was
engirdled by the wall erected by its citizens in the third or fourth century of
the Christian era. As late as 1477, Ralph Josceline, Lord Mayor of that year,
restored the whole of the northern face from Aldgate to Aldersgate, and it was
only in 1766, that the Commissioners of Sewers sought permission from Parliament
to sweep away this enduring monument of the Roman epoch of London. The work of
destruction was fortunately by no means complete, many long sections having been
left for piecemeal destruction in later years, and happily builders have often
preferred to utilise portions of the ancient structure rather than face the
heavy work of demolition. Thus, buried out of sight and wellnigh forgotten by
its citizens, the historic bulwarks of Londinium still exist in fragmentary
fashion throughout nearly the whole of their length.
The general conclusion arrived at by those who have watched excavations on the
wall is that the landward sides were built first without bastions, and with a
comparatively small ditch; that the river wall was added at some subsequent
period; and either at the same time or shortly afterwards the whole enceinte was
strengthened with bastions and the ditch widened and deepened.
On the landward sides there is a certain uniformity of plan throughout, and the
plinth, the one feature which breaks the exterior surface, is found at every
point where the lowest portion of the structure has been exposed. Courses of
bonding brick also impart an appearance of great regularity and the thickness
remains practically uniform throughout the entire perimeter. At all points
examined, the external as well as internal surfaces are faced with
hammer-dressed roughly squared stones, and the bulk of this material is of
Kentish rag.
However carefully the work is examined, the comprehensive character of the whole
remains indubitable, but in detail there is very obvious evidence of a certain
indifference, the bonding bricks being in layers of varying thickness and in
places not extending through the whole fabric. A careful comparison of eight
sections reveals complete diversity of treatment of the bonding courses and the
stepping on the internal face varies also.
The position of the wall has been ascertained with certainty on the landward
sides except between Ludgate and the river where there is a little doubt. Facing
the Thames, there is no room for doubt as to the line of the wall, but east of
the Wallbrook the discoveries are restricted to a few short lengths.
Commencing at the south-western corner, the great defensive work seems to have
passed through Printing House Square, now enclosed by the buildings of Times
newspaper, and went a little east of due north to Ludgate. It is probable that
this did not represent the original line, for under No. 56 Carter Lane was found
a wall which in thickness and other respects agrees with the rest of the
landward construction. There appear to be no drawings or records of this section
and therefore the matter is just a little in doubt, but as the description given
by the builder, who saw and measured the wall laid bare on this site, could
scarcely have been invented, there is every reason to think that the original
wall sloped in a south-easterly direction from Ludgate, so that this entry and
Newgate to the north form the angles of the western lobe of the original city
enceinte which followed the contour of the western hill. Perhaps when the river
front was fortified the south-eastern corner was enlarged.
The curtain wall extending between Ludgate and Newgate has been very definitely
located, and while no records of bastions exist, there may have been two in this
sector. At Newgate have been found portions of the foundations of the Roman
structure, and it is a curious fact that the name of this entry into the city
should have been so entirely misleading, for here, and nowhere else up to the
present time, have the original foundations been discovered.
Two towers, 30 feet square, flanked an opening of about 35 feet, almost
certainly divided into two road-ways, each about 15 feet in width. The gate was
set at an irregular angle in the wall, the northern tower projecting about 7
feet, while its southern fellow stood out for double that distance. To resist
the thrust of the curtain wall, the sides of the towers crossing it were of
exceptional thickness — about 9 feet compared with 5 on the other faces. Where
the lower parts of the gateway towers have come to light, they show superior
workmanship to the main wall. Dr Philip Norman describes the discovery in 1903
of the plinth stones on the inner face of the southern tower, and mentions that
all the stones were clamped with iron embedded in lead.
Immediately to the north of Newgate the wall turned eastward in an open curve,
and at this point excavation proves that a bastion was subsequently erected. It
was especially necessary here, in view of the fact that the wall had sagged very
seriously and was leaning outwards at a dangerous angle. This bastion was larger
than those hitherto discovered, and its wall was 7 1/2 feet thick, only a foot
less than that of the curtain which it supported. Fortunately this notable
feature of the great bulwark of Roman London was preserved beneath the General
Post Office yard in Giltspur Street, and can be seen if permission be applied
for.
The wall from this point continues eastward to a short distance beyond
Aldersgate, where it turns rather sharply N.N.E., making thereby a re-entrant
angle, the purpose of which has puzzled investigators. If the builders had in
view the avoidance of the slight hollow, probably somewhat damp owing to the
existence of springs in that locality, the deflection of the wall may be
explained, for, although several additional yards of construction were entailed,
the saving of complications in the making of the foundations was evidently a
matter of great importance. The mere fact that the builders were anxious to
avoid even tEe slightest engineering operation seems to point once more in the
direction of haste in construction.
At irregular intervals along the re-entrant angle no fewer than seven bastions
have been located, and in addition, close to the N.E. salient, just south of the
bastion in Gripplegate Churchyard, there is marked on Ogilby and Morgan’s plan,
dated 1677, what appears to be a rectangular internal tower larger than the
bastions. If this were Roman — unfortunately there is no proof — it might
conceivably have been a store for reserve ammunition and other supplies for this
section of the defence, since every bastion would have had its proper armament
of large and small military engines. However, it is quite possible that this
tower was of post-Roman date, similar to that found a little to the north of
Ludgate, shown on the large plan.
Along the whole length of the Wall one bastion alone shows above the modern
ground level. It stands in the churchyard of Cripplegate, overhung by lofty
modern buildings, and perhaps all that is visible to the eye is of mediaeval
workmanship. Beneath the surface, however, is the undoubted Roman substructure,
set in characteristic pink mortar.
Where the modern Aldersgate Street crosses the wall, stood the third gate, of
which no remains have yet been discovered. The north and north-eastern faces of
the wall ran from the Cripplegate bastion to Aldgate. It was pierced by
Cripplegate and Bishopsgate. In its central sector the wall cut athwart three
feeders of the Wallbrook, and, in order to allow for the free flow of the
streams, openings were provided in the wall at the necessary points. Two of
these have been discovered in the street called London Wall close to Finsbury
Gircus. The passage of bulky rubbish was guarded against by iron gratings, of
which portions have been found. It seems probable that there were other opening
besides these two at this particular point, irrespective of those undoubtedly
necessarp elsewhere. So long as the culverts and their gratings were properly
cared for, no trouble arose with the streams, but as soon as the general
disorder produced neglect, they became choked, and the pent-up waters began to
accumulate against the face of the wall until, by the twelfth century, a broad
shallow mere lay immediately to the north of the city, between the roads
emerging from Bishopsgate and Cripplegate. In course of time this mere naturally
became"" contaminated, and its presence was eventually a danger to health.
On the purely northern front of the Wall only two bastions have been located.
One of these just to the west of Moorgate is only inferred from a mass of
masonry containing pink cement having been found abutting upon the Wall, the
other was located under the foundations of the semi-circular vestry of All
Hallows’ Church, London Wall. That it was later than the wall itself was proved
by the finding of many architectural fragments from other buildings — a feature
never discovered in the curtain. Further, the mortar once more was of the
characteristic pounded brick variety of the Roman period.
Between Bishopsgate and Aldgate there were five bastions, all of which are
either well-authenticated, or have actually been discovered. The most notable is
probably that in Camomile Street, which was excavated in 1876. Its special
interest is due to the fact that in its construction the fragments of a
demolished monument had been worked up. In addition to this there was found a
sculptured lion in the act of devouring, its prey, much on the same lines as
that discovered at Corbridge in 1907, but, although the head is very much worn,
the artistry is distinctly superior.
In Goring Street (formerly Castle Street), a little south-east of Camomile
Street, the remains of a bastion were uncovered in 1884, but, despite the
momentary enthusiasm at the time, nothing was done to preserve it. Like its
companion in Camomile Street, it included many architectural fragments taken
from demolished buildings, as well as a sarcophagus.’-
Proceeding south-eastwards along Bevis Marks, a fine fragment of the wall was
brought to light in 1880, and associated with it was what seems to have been an
extremely important bastion, together with a section of the city ditch. The
contemporary description was most inadequate, for there were several features of
unusual interest, including a massive channel of solid stone, leading from the
centre of the bastion to the ditch, as well as an earthen counterscarp or “
vallum.” Such treatment of the ditch not having been discovered or noted
elsewhere, the feature is especially informative. Among the architectural
fragments found in this bastion was part of a column about 9 inches in diameter
with a lozenge pattern sculptured on its surface.
Between this Bevis Mark bastion and Aldgate two others are shown on Ogilby and
Morgan’s plan published in 1677, and, in greater detail, in the Holy Trinity
Priory Survey of 1592. These plans appear to show the ordinary Roman form of the
bastions. It is suggested that one of them was identical with that' drawn by
Gough in 1763, but this was very obviously square, and may therefore have been a
variant upon the normal rounded bastion, and may perhaps belong to a very late
period. It should be noted that this is on the north-eastern and most threatened
face.
Of the Roman gateway at Aldgate, the sixth from Ludgate, no indications have
been found. Between Aldgate and the river, the wall takes a direct course almost
due south, terminating, as far as actual remains have been seen, in the ruins of
the Wardrobe Tower, at a point opposite the south-easterly turret of the great
keep, built by William the Conqueror, who does not appear, however, to have
destroyed any of the Roman wall ; this was, it seems, to be the work of his
successor. It is generally considered that this was not the actual termination,
and that the Lanthorn Tower of the Inner Bailey occupies the site of the
south-eastern corner bastion. The site of a mediaeval postern on Tower Hill may
perhaps mark the position of a similar outlet in Roman times, but this is mere
surmise. The fact that no road of any consequence left the city south of Aldgate
certainly removes the need for any important gateway on this sector.
The surviving portions of the curtain on the eastern front are important, while
the position of some of the bastions is uncertain. On the east side of Jewry
Street the wall lies beneath the frontages of the houses, and in 1861, a portion
was uncovered, showing that at this point it was founded upon massive piles.
There was probably hereabouts a bastion, but careless observation resulted in no
definite records being taken. A particularly fine fragment was exposed in 1905,
at the junction of Crutched Friars and Jewry Street, which, by the care of the
Skinners’ Company, has been preserved and built into the basement of the block
of offices called Roman Wall House. The interest of this fragment is the fine
state of preservation of the inner facing.
A little to the south, the line of the wall is intersected by the railway to
Tilbury and Southend. Part of this sector was destroyed in 1841, and thirty-nine
years later, when the railway was widened, other sections were revealed in
America Square. At that point indications of two bastions, not far apart, were
brought to light, and there was also a small culvert penetrating the wall. These
facts seem to indicate the need which existed for a certain amount of
buttressing of the wall, here standing on alluvium, which only furnished an
unstable foundation.
In the bonded warehouse of Messrs Barber, between the railway and Trinity
Square, is the finest existing portion of the wall of London. On various
calculations it stands from 25 to 43 feet in height, these differences being
perhaps due to different measurements as to the original ground level. Nearly
half of the height was the original Roman work, and it is given by Sir William
Tite as less than 20 feet, the remainder consisting of mediaeval additions and
repairs. It may be mentioned here that the actual parapet walk of the ancient
defensive wall of London still exists here, supported in part by the work of the
Romano-British builders, reared possibly as far back as the third century.
Between this fine survival and Tower Hill the wall is believed to be fairly
continuous, and it is visible in a yard opening from Trinity Square. One sees
only the patching of the Middle Ages, containing a good proportion of Roman
materials ; but in a cellar adjoining a considerable fragment of the actual
Roman wall exists, heavily coated with whitewash. At this point there was
undoubtedly a bastion containing a number of architectural stone fragments.
These appear to have represented the demolished sepulchral monument of a Roman
officer named Alpinus Classicianus, and some of them are now in the British
Museum. A drawing was made in 1852, by a Mr Fairholt, of the wall and remains of
this bastion.
From the Lanthorn Tower of the Inner Bailey of the Tower o£ London to the point
where it turned northwards towards Ludgate, the Wall, on the river side,
followed approximately the line of Lower and Upper Thames Streets, except where
it was broken by the Wallbrook. No traces of any gates, posterns, or bastions
have been found on this front, and between the Tower and the Wallbrook scarcely
half-a-dozen fragments of the curtain wall have been located. In the sector west
of the Wallbrook, however, Roach Smith records the discovery of an almost
continuous line from Lambeth Hill to Queenhithe. Unlike the landward wall, but
like the bastions, it contained a great number of pieces of sculptured stone and
marble, suggesting that the Thames front and the bastions were equally built at
a time of dire necessity and subsequent to the land defences. The river wall, in
spite of the ingredients just mentioned, seems to have been a very solid
structure, superior in some ways to the earlier enceinte. Where the subsoil was
alluvium the foundation was secured by driving oaken piles closely together on
the inner and outer faces, the intervening space being filled with rammed chalk
and stone. On this was laid a course of large hewn stones, forming a base for
the usual concrete superstructure of ragstone and flint bedded in pounded brick
mortar. The bonding was formed in places with roofing tiles as well as brick,
again suggesting the demolition of buildings.
At the foot of Fish Street Hill, where the wall stood upon gravel, the
foundation was laid on a bed of logs laid horizontally at right angles to the
wall, and held in position by short and strong pointed stakes driven in up to
the head.
At Brook’s Yard on the north side of Upper Thames Street a remarkable section
has recently come to light. Within the outer wall, at a distance of 15 feet, is
a second wall built in somewhat the same manner, but only 5 feet thick. The
careful elaboration of the foundations would indicate that it was intended to be
carried to a considerable height. As this inner wall has up to the present time
been discovered in this one spot only, it is obviously unwise to generalise upon
it. At a hazard one might suggest that this inner and less substantial wall was
of earlier date, and, being considered too weak, was superseded subsequently by
a much more powerful outer rampart.
In advance of the whole of the landward wall was carried a ditch of the usual
V-shaped Roman section. This original fosse was rather in the nature of a
draining channel than of a formidable obstacle, being only about 10 or 12 feet
wide and 6 or 7 feet deep. When the bastions were added they somewhat encroached
upon it, necessitating the construction of a new one, which, naturally, in the
threatening conditions of the times, was made on more formidable lines. So far
as can be judged from one or two points where it has been detected, it was 25
feet wide and 14 feet deep, while at the gates it seems to have been widened out
to no less than 75 feet, including a mound or ridge in the centre to carry a
single or double drawbridge.
Thus in its last and fully developed stage, the defensive system of Londinium
comprised more than three miles of a fairly solid concrete wall, strengthened by
some forty or fifty bastions, besides the fortified gateways, and, where the
Thames did not afford a natural wet ditch, the wall was further protected by a
fosse from 25 to 75 feet broad. Further, there is slight indication of
earthworks outside the ditch. So far as the normal engineering skill of the age
could achieve protection to a city, Londinium was adequately guarded, and,
according to the knowledge at present available, until the ninth century no
foreign invader succeeded in penetrating by force those sturdy bulwarks.